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ilar to that created in the Bayh-Dole Act in the US. However, the most important law, a law to alter the legal status of national universities from a government institution to an independent administrative entity, took effect in April of 2004.

To manage IPRs, Japan initially took an initiative stating that national universities research should belong to the individual researchers but later law was passed for establishment of TTOs within or outside universities. As a result of success in U-I collaboration more and more initiatives were taken by the government. There is other evidence of the growing interest of Japanese universities in protecting their inventions by filing patents as a means for transferring technology. The Japanese universities filed 1,335 patents in 2002, a substantial increase from the 76 patents in 1996.

3.2 China

China’s university-industry partnerships began as early as the 1950s. From the start of the Communist regime, universities were called upon to make full contributions toward the increase of production in China. Transfer of knowledge from universities was conducted without explicit rules with respect to intellectual property. It was only after the major policy change that took place during the 80s that China became more focused on the productivity of the economy and thus began to mobilize academic and scientific resources to achieve economic ends. In 1985 decisions were made by the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party which allowed universities to make their own decisions, based on the market situation, in organizing R&D programs and transferring technologies. These decisions were presented in the Chinese science and technology policy. In addition, the decision made it possible to provide incentives through “more pay for more work.” The role of the government changed from direct intervention and control to guidance and oversight, setting laws and regulations under which universities could decide on their own course of action.

In China, Technology transfer and licensing from universities has increased. The number of patent transfers, for example, went up from 298 in 1999 to 532 in 2002. During the same period, technology transfers also increased from about 4000 to 5600. In addition to technology transfers, contractual research, consultancy and enterprise incubation are widely seen as a means for university researchers to work with private businesses. During the three-year period between 2000 and the end of 2002, 326 establishments were created in cooperation with Chinese or foreign enterprises. The success of China U-I collaboration can be attributed to strong incentives by the government such as allowing researchers to keep at least 50% of the earnings from commercialized technologies, and encouragement/contribution by the industry in funding almost 40 percents of the scientific research.

In the late 1990s, China took a series of more specific actions to push ahead with university-industry collaboration. The Central Committee of the Communist Party decided in 1999 that bilateral and multilateral mechanisms for collaboration should be created in the form of mutual part-time jobs and training. The government objective for such collaboration was to promote universities to form technology transfer offices; to encourage universities to disseminate the use of technologies developed in various forms such as through patent lice