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Instrumentality: This assumes that the behaviour of individuals is influenced by the degree to which additional desired goals can be attained as the direct result of such behaviour (Vroom & Edward, 1970). The theory suggests that the amount of effort people are willing to put in a task depends on whether the performance when achieved will pay off in terms of outcomes (Ivan T.R et al, 1992).

Valence: This refers to the value of the outcomes. Vroom & Edward (1970) suggests that individuals value some outcomes highly and hence desire them and can value outcomes lowly and try to avoid them. He states that we are motivated by the fact that we expect specific behaviours to result in specific outcomes and that such outcomes will have a degree of valence.

The main motivation points of Vroom according to David A.H (1995) are

The expectancy that specific behaviour will result in that attainment of a specific goal, the value of the desired goal and the degree to which such behaviour is instrumental to the attainment of other additional goals.

EDWIN A. LOCKE - GOAL THEORY

Basically this theory looks at motivation from the angle of motivating the employer. It suggests that when specific goals and targets are set out for individuals, they become motivated in order to achieve the goals. This theory has identified that human beings act in a specific way when they are faced with a particular goal (Locke E.A, 1968).
The highlights of this theory are that difficult goals should be set because they result in higher performance, employees should be part of the goal setting and that there should be adequate feedback with guidance and advice (Locke & Latham, 1984). Locke pointed out that incentives such as money, participation, competition and praise can influence goals. According to Ivan T. Robertson et al (1992) goals have been demonstrated to affect performance through four mechanisms:
Directing attention and action.
Mobilizing effort
Increasing task persistence.
Motivating the search for appropriate performance strategies.
Ivan T. Robertson et al (1992) also added two goal attributes that could be relevant for motivation.
Goal content - the level of goal difficulty and how specific it is and

Goal intensity - strength and commitment attached to the goal.

RECENT IDEAS ON MOTIVATION THEORIES

The recent theories on motivation haven't really come up with any new idea very different from what other older writers on the subject have written; instead they have built on it to make it more adaptable to the changing environment and human perspective.

SHEILA RITCHIE AND PETER MARTIN - 12 FACTORS OF MOTIVATION

They gathered a list of factors that affected motivation in the work place and finally trimmed them down to 12 basic factors. Their observation method was to create a self assessment profile which was developed in other to find out what motivated people and also to weight the factors against each other. Their result was a unique motivational profile for each person which gave the relative streng本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。