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ess absence.” Fingret argues that this may be even more damaging to business efficiency that the absences which “though carrying physical illness labels, are in fact related to lack of mental well-being.” Cooper (1994) refers to the “huge costs ... of people turning up to work who are so distressed by their jobs or some aspect of the organizational climate that they contribute little, if anything, to their work.”

Where employees are required to exercise creativity and initiative these effects may be even more pronounced. Talbot, Cooper and Barrow (1992) studied 202 managers [a sub-set of a wider study involving 1083 respondents, all from one organisation]. They found significant negative correlations between stress and the potential for creativity, although they were unable to ascribe a causal relationship between stress and creativity because “both may be an outcome of something else.” Karasek and Theorell (1990) hypothesise that “accumulated level of unresolved strain [or anxiety level] appears to restrict a person's ability to learn solutions to new problems. The literature on burnout has also demonstrated that prolonged job stress is associated with decline in initiatives at work.”

Task performance is also found to be impaired when stress exceeds an individual's tolerance level. Selye (1982) maintains that “under stress people often perform at higher levels, but if the stress continues exhaustion sets in and leads to a range of problems [‘diseases of adaptation'].” (Selye 1982)

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