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port documentsareas where shipping may contribute to moderate reductions of emissions with moderatecosts. Significant reductions will represent a cost that should be related to the total gain ofthe reduction in comparison with abatement cost level in other sectors.  Significant potential for reduction of emissions from shipping based on operationalmeasures has been identified. Based on the market mechanisms in shipping, implementationof the defined operational measures will most likely require participation from others thanthe ship owners.  Technical measures can be easier to implement and enforce through international standardsthan operational measures, and implementing these measures primarily through new vesselconstruction may be more feasible for the industry than retrofitting existing ships.  Based on an assessment of alternative policy instruments, and in the light of the ongoingratification process of the Kyoto Protocol, the following strategy for policy implementationfor IMO to curb GHG emissions could be feasible:1. Explore the interests for entering into voluntary agreements on GHG emissionlimitations between the IMO and the ship owners, or to use environmental indexing.2. Start working on how to design emission standards for new and possibly also forexisting vessels.3. Pursue the possibilities of credit trading from additional abatement measuresimplemented on new and possibly also on existing vessels.  A set of comprehensive and detailed regulations ensures necessary minimum protection ofcrew, passengers, environment, and the ship. As a part of the process of introducing newamendments, unintentional interrelations should be carefully considered, in order to avoidinconsistencies between the objectives of the safety and environmental regime.

1.4. 1996 marine emissions1996海洋排放

1.4.1. Emission inventory排放设备

Air pollution from marine engines in terms of exhaust emission amounts was established by useof emission models. These models are based on actual emission factors adopted from onboardengine measurements or theoretical factors arrived from the respective chemical reactionequations and combined with actual fuel consumption (based on international marine bunkerfuel sale figures). International marine emissions were estimated by using:  A fuel-consumption methodology.  A statistical emission model.The marine bunker supply was mainly collected from energy databases publish by the EnergyInformation Administration (EIA), the International Energy Agency (IEA), and United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). An emission inventory for ships ininternational trade for the base year 1996 was established.

1.4.2. Impact of international shipping - NOxand tropospheric ozoneNOx和对流层臭氧对国际航运影响
The impact of ship NOxemissions on local and regional air quality (pollution) will continue tobe the dominant policy driver and may motivate additional domestic and international policyaction. However, as scientific research furthers the understanding of global climate effects,policy decisions may increasingly focus on these global issues.Reduction in NOxemissions motivated by air quality concerns, either through internationalstandards such as MARPOL Annex VI or through domestic policy efforts, will tend to reducethe net warming effect due to tropospheric ozone and CH4. If these NOxreductions a本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。