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mpared to 1/6th in ancient India. During Aaurangzeb's rule this claim was set to exactly half of the produce. It was Akbar under whom the mode of payment was converted from being in kind to in cash as suggested by his minister Todar Mal, thus Todar Mal plays an important part in designing and introducing cash revenues instead of in kind which can be attributed to more and more exploitation of cultivators. Tenure system under Akbar's was of Raiyatwari.

During ancient period, the so called land tax was collected by a hierarchy of government subordinates on the other hand in Akbar's rule it was collected by khas mahal or crown lands. After Akbar's death direct collection of tax was abandoned and village assessment was being done under village headmen. Thus entire land revenue was collected by government officials but by a heterogenous group of intermediaries consisting namely Jagirdars, village headmen and revenue farmers. This phase can be considered as the period of evolution of intermediaries in land revenue system. All these people came to be later known as Zamindars i.e. landholders. Zamindars were the ones who held the top position on the hierarchy of revenue collectors and therefore were given more importance as they were in direct contact with the state. People of minor importance were known as 'Talukdars' i.e. Holders of a portion of land. Degree of actual power with the landholders varied with their wealth, respectability and influence of each chief, and specially his closeness to the centre of control.

The decline of the mughal emperor lead to direct effect on the revenue system initiated under Akbar's rule. This decline leads to formation of various independent kingdoms in the country. These independent kingdoms did not have any prosperous course and therefore long decay and due to a complex hierarchy of system lead to evolution of corruption in every department of the state. This weak and corrupted system under independent kingdoms was much attributed to the British invasion and rule in India. Initially East India Company started with buying zamindari rights over the villages mainly in the eastern part of the country; by this they acquired the rights to collect rent from the raiyats and thus imposed petty taxes and duties. Consequently after the battle of Plassey and many similar battles which depicts Britisher's sole motive of acquisition, east India Company started acquiring more and more such rights and thus made a secure footing in the Indian subcontinent. Further to extract more and more revenue from the land many policies were undertaken. In 1772 five year farming system was initiated which included tours and settlements with the provinces under which land revenue was assigned to the highest bidders for a period of five years. Zamindars and farmers were made to raise their revenues to sky high levels in lieu of securing their rights. These policies lead states to be left in exhausted condition.

After the failure of this five year farming system the company finally agreed to a 'Permanent Settlement', decided in 1793 under which company fixed the revenue 10/11th of the assets which left the zamindars 1/10th of what they paid. In addition zamindars were given lavages which could be used only to exploit the cultivator further. This permanent settlement regime had major consequences, it millions of actual cultivators, produced disastrous social and economic distre本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。