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Early implementation research focused on a rational framework that posited that goals can be set at central location and through various controls, these goals can be achieved (Scott, 1992). Rational frameworks also focus on the structures of organizational settings and their role in purposeful activity centered on goal achievement. This framework, which has led to the top-down school of thought focuses on management/policy makers as central actors and factors these central actors control that can affect fidelity to the goals. (Pressman and Wildavsky, 1973; Van Meter and Van Horn, 1976)

As a linear approach based on achieving certain goals, rational approach fails to take into account the political nature of policies/changes. It, instead, focuses on implementation as a mere administrative practice guided by clear objectives and direction. Fox (1990) argues that by only focusing on rational view of implementation, we fail to address the false dichotomy of the objective versus subjective in implementation.

Conflict and Exchange Framework

This perspective commonly known as a bottom-up perspective used an exchange or conflict theory to explain how implementers mutually adapt policy to fit their needs (McLaughlin, 1987). This framework, in contrast to rational models, argued that a more comprehensive view of implementation can take place by looking through the perspective of local site, target population, or service deliverers and the conflicts and the exchanges that occur. Hjern and Hull (1982), Elmore (1978), Hall and Loucks (1978) and McLaughlin (1974) all developed models that suggested bottom-up understanding of implementation.

This framework has been criticized for placing large extent of policy/change meaning in the local actors and neglecting the role of management/policy makers. Matland (1995) argues that this approach overemphasizes local factors while resources and access to an implementation arena may be determined centrally and can substantially affect policy/program outcome.

Hybrid Frameworks

These synthesis models attempt to explain the implementation process by looking at rational framework and exchange or conflict model for implementation. These models of implementation take kernels of truth from both top-down and bottom-up perspectives. They look for a variety of responses and strategies depending upon either the policy (Matland, 1995), the policy arena (Miller, 1990), coalitions involved (Sabatier, 1989) or conditions under which one model can be appropriate (Berman, 1980).

Social Construction of Meaning Framework

Social construction of meaning as a conceptual framework analyzes the constructed nature of social meaning and reality. This frame, in contrast to a more rational view, assumes that meaning is always changed but always based on interpretations according to local contexts. Fullan (1992) suggests that implementation of change by simply putting into ideas, practices or activities into place have a very little impact. For true improvement to occur, the author sugges本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。