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rather than of equivalence. At the second stage is Skopos theory, i. e. Skopos theory advanced by her student Hans J. Vermeer. It is the core theory of the whole functionalist translation theory, totally free from the equivalence theory that centers on the SL. It holds that linguistics alone cannot solve all problems. Since translation takes place in different cultural backgrounds, translation is not an activity which converts words only. It is, however, a human action. Translation has its own purposes like other human acts and its purpose is set before translating starts. Generally speaking, compared with equivalence, Skopostheory does not focus on whether the TT is equivalent to the ST or the TT is “perfect”, but emphasizes that we should choose the best processing method by analyzing the ST with the expected functions of the TT as its purposes. In contrast with those theories focusing on linguistic rules of the source language(SL), which takes a retrospective attitude, Skopostheorie takes a prospective attitude. The theory has clear explanation about the purpose, the decision of translation purposes, the relationship between the ST and the TT, the role of the translator and the translating methods. The focus of Skopostheorie is not traditionally linguistic, but mainly functional and cultural. In translating, the translator should have a clear understanding of the author's and the translator's purposes respectively. Certainly, the translator’s own purpose is the key to the whole trend of translating. Based on Vermeer’s Skopostheorie, Justa developed the functionalist theory at the third stage. After that, Nord became a dominant master and an advocate of the German functionalist translation theory. She added loyalty as a complement to Skopostheorie. Loyalty refers to the responsibility that translators bear in all the parties involved in translation, which perfects the functionalist translation theory.
2. 1. 2 Functionalist Characteristics
We can see the main characteristics of the functionalist theory from the following table. Hoenig(1998:14) contrasts the characteristics of functional approaches vs. non-functional approaches as follows:

Item Functionalist Non-functionalist
Translator loyal to his client, visible Loyal to the author, invisible
Translation processes TT-oriented ST-oriented
Aim of translation communicative acceptability linguistic equivalence
Translation tools psycho-and sociolinguistics text linguistics(supporting decisions) contrastive linguistics
lexical semantics
(applying rules)
Analogy building bridge crossing river

Table: A Schematic View of Functionalist and Non-functionalist Approaches
Judging from the table, “visibility” of the translator is a key concept in functional approaches. According to Honing(1998:12–13), in functionalism the translator inevitably has to be visible, since functional approaches do not establish rules but support decision-making strategies and the translator has to make critical decisions about how to define the translation Skopos and which strategies can best meet the target recipient’s requirements. S/he should be visible, making his/her decisions transparent to his/her client and accepting the responsibility of his/her choices.
2. 2 Theoretical Foundation
Skopostheorie is the foundation of the whole functionalist theory. The central idea of the functionalist theory is emb本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。