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. While the three frameworks appear to be well specified, they are not modeled explicitly, and the casual paths between some variables are not entirely clear. The studies also seem to suffer from the too many variables/too few cases dilemma making it difficult to assess the causal impact of independent variables on leadership effectiveness. Nearly all of the cases examined in these studies are examples of effective leaders. As a result, there is very little variation in the dependent variable in the three analyses (Fernandez, 2005).

Role of Middle Managers

Management literature has increasingly focused on the actions and importance of top management (Bass, 1990). Even studies of interpretation in the change process have focused on executive management interpreting change for the entire organization (Gioia and Chittipeddi, 1991). Traditional frameworks of organization describe middle managers as implementers of designed initiatives and enforcers of organizational rules and reward systems. In such roles, middle managers are often viewed as obstacles to change. In practice, organizations have sought to improve performance by reducing the number of employees particularly mid level managers (Hamel, 2000).

However, a growing body of research suggests that middle mangers may play key roles in corporate change processes (Kanter, 1982). Broadly, this research suggests that middle mangers are instrumental in the change process because of their actions in connecting corporate and local structures through communication and commitment process. Middle managers, because of their hands on understanding of local work processes, may be crucial in the innovation of local work processes (Streatfield, 2001). In their study of strategic change in a university, Gioia and Chittipeddi (1991) found that middle mangers were involved in providing a viable interpretation of what change would mean for the work unit so that employees would adopt it as their own. Case studies of organizational change suggest that middle mangers are key to the successful change because they translate broad collective goals into language that work groups will understand (Gioia and Chittipeddi, 1991).

Lorch (1967) found that mid level mangers in high performing organizations develop voluntary activities to supplement traditional hierarchical and administrative systems in high performing organizations. Kanter (1982), in her research on the role of managers in ten major corporations found that organizational leaders in successful organizations, particularly middle mangers, play the role of integrationists.

Managers in public organizations can also be distinguished into top managers and middle managers. Comparable to the private sector, top managers are seen as responsible for strategic decisions, organizing administrative structure and providing incentives to achieve these strategies. Middle managers have positions between those top managers who are responsible for strategic tasks and those who are at the front line of an organization. Their tasks include implementing deliberate strategies and mediating between hierarchies in bridging the gap between strategic plans and adaptation due to environmental change.

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