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at  Freud  called  it  “double consciousness” as Janet called it “dissociation” (Herman 12). American Psychological Association  firstly included post-traumatic stress  disorder (PTSD)  in the diagnostic canon of the Medical and psychiatric until 1980, and in 1994 verified the diagnosis of acute stress disorder (ASD), so that trauma and its effect finally came into a formal diagnosis. PTSD’s symptoms include, avoidance of stimuli associated with trauma, re-experiencing the traumas with flashbacks or nightmare, and increasing arousal. In fact, Cathy  Caruth  offers  the  most  cited  definition,  “trauma  describes  an  overwhelming experience of sudden or catastrophic events in which the response to the event occurs in  the  often  delayed,  uncontrolled  repetitive  appearance  of  hallucination  and  other intrusive phenomena” (1996:5).

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2.2 Collective Memory

From the 20th century, scholars began to research on memory. With the discussion of  historical  problems  arisen  by  historians,  literati,  thinkers  and  theorists  and  the arguments  about  historical  narrative,  scholars  have  transformed  the  research  from narrative structure of historical text to the essence of history: memory. As well as trauma, memory was primitively a research object in psychological field which could refer to the ability to remember the past and also the thing been remembered. It is an extremely complicated question how memory takes shape. The memory is not only a product shaped by history, culture, politics and other external forces, but also a result of people’s initiative, which is used to preserve and extend their recognizing value system and cultural  norms.  What  memory  study  should  explore,  on  the  one  hand,  is  the reconstruction of memory  object,  on the other hand, is  the history and tradition  of memorizing events. Memory not only aims at the past, concerns on the present, but also decides on the attitude towards future.  

People have known memory for long time, however, they have discussed memory theory not long ago. At the end of 19th century, the social perspective on memory has appeared. French sociologist Maurice Halbwachs has proposed a concept “collective memory” and developed the theory about collective memory. In his opinion, collective memory “is not a given but rather a socially constructed notion. Nor is it some mystical group mind” (Halbwachs 22). He further points out that memory is not just a simple physiological concept, it is restricted by social elements to a great extent. “Collective memory” is not a metaphor but a real existence. French historian Pierre Nora proposes that collective memory refers to “the historical activities of some groups”. These groups feel that society is losing its own history, and they are full of anxiety about the future, and further hope to improve the situation by raising the value of “a past that has never been faithfully passed” (Chen Qineng 443). Meanwhile, English social anthropologist Paul Connerton proposes that social memory is controlled by 本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。